JPEG 2000Retrospective and New Developments

DANIELT.LEE,MEMBER,IEEEInvitedPaper

JPEG2000isanewimagecodingsystemthatdeliverssuperiorcompressionperformanceandprovidesmanyadvancedfeaturesinscalability,flexibility,andsystemfunctionalitiesthatoutperformallpreviousstandards.ItbringsexcitingpossibilitiestomanyimagingapplicationssuchastheInternet,wireless,security,anddigitalcinema.Thispapergivesanoverviewofthistriumphininnovationsandteamwork.ItgivesbriefintroductionstothefournewpartsthatareunderdevelopmentbytheJPEGcommittee.Itattemptstosum-marizethelessonslearnedfromtheJPEG2000developmentex-perienceanddrawsomeconclusionsonthesuccessfactorsofthisimportantstandard.

Keywords—Colorimagecoding,datacompression,imagecom-munication,Internetimaging,JointPhotographicExpertsGroup(JPEG),JPEG2000,motionJPEG2000,sourcecoding,subbandcoding,wavelettransform.

developmentbytheJPEGcommittee.Itattemptstosumma-rizethelessonslearnedfromtheJPEG2000developmentexperienceanddrawsomeconclusionsonthesuccessfac-torsofthisimportantstandard.SectionIIofthepapergivesthehistoricsettingandorganizationofJPEG2000.Thetech-nologyinJPEG2000isreviewedinPartIII.ThenewpartsofJPEG2000arehighlightedinPartIVandthesuccessfac-torslearnedfromtheJPEG2000developmentexperienceissummarizedinPartV.

II.DEVELOPMENTOFJPEG2000A.OriginalJPEG

TheoriginalJPEGstandard[1],whichwasdevelopedinthelate1980s,isaverysuccessfulstandardintermsofitswidespreadusebyverylargenumberofdigitalimagingapplications.ThetechnologyadoptedinbaselineJPEGatthetimeofitsdevelopmentwasbasedonasimple,efficient8-by-8DCTcompressionalgorithmthatusesHuffmancoding,operatedinsequentialmodeandrestrictedto8-b/pixelinput[2].Besidesitstechnicalmerits,thesuccessenjoyedbyJPEGcanbeattributedtotheavailabilityofthefreeandefficientsoftwaredevelopedbytheIndependentJPEGGroup(IJG)[3].PartofthesuccessofJPEGwasduetotheintroductionoftheJFIFfileformatthatmakesthepopularfileextensionimage.jpg,whichissynonymouswithJPEGcompressedimages,ubiquitousinimagingap-plications.Interestingly,theJFIFfileformatwasnotpartoftheoriginalJPEGstandard,asthecommittee’sgoalwastostandardizeasetofcompressiontools,andtheimpor-tanceofaninterchangefileformatwasonlyrealizedasanafterthought.WewillseethatinthedevelopmentofJPEG2000,specialimportancewasgiventothedevelopmentoftherelevantfileformatssothatimagingapplicationswiththegreatestsystemsfunctionalitiescanbeaccomplished.OtherimagefileformatsthatuseJPEGasthebasecom-pressiontechnologyhavebeendevelopedbytheindustryinthe1990stosatisfytheneedsofdifferentimagingapplica-tions.Amongthem,theEXIFfileformat,usedinthemajorityofdigitalcameras,wasdesignedtoincludethemetadataas-sociatedwithaJPEGcompresseddigitalimage.TIFF/EPis

I.INTRODUCTION

JPEG2000isanewimagecompressionstandarddevel-opedundertheauspicesofISO/IECJTC1/SC29/WG1(com-monlyknowastheJointPhotographicExpertsGroup(JPEG)committee).Thestandardmakesuseofseveralrecentad-vancesincompressiontechnologytodeliversuperiorcom-pressionperformanceandprovidesmanyadvancedfeaturesinscalability,flexibility,andsystemsfunctionalitiesthatout-performitspredecessor,theoriginalJPEGstandard.Inpar-ticular,JPEG2000usesadiscretewavelettransform(DWT)inplaceofthediscretecosinetransform(DCT)ofJPEG.Itusesasophisticatedcodingmechanismthatsupportsflex-ible,finelyembeddedrepresentationoftheimagesothatmanydesirablefeaturesareprovidedinonesinglebitstream.JPEG2000placesstrongemphasisonscalabilitytotheex-tentthatvirtuallyallJPEG2000bitsreamsarehighlyscal-able.Thispapergivesanoverviewofthistriumphininno-vationsandteamwork.Itgivesbriefintroductionstothefournewparts:InteractiveTools,ApplicationProgrammingInter-faces,andProtocols(JPIP),SecureJPEG2000(JPSEC),3-DData(JP3D),andWireless(JPWL)thatareundercurrently

ManuscriptreceivedJanuary4,2004;revisedJune10,2004.

TheauthoriswithYahoo!Inc.,Sunnyvale,CA94089USA(e-mail:dlee@yahoo-inc.com.)

DigitalObjectIdentifier10.1109/JPROC.2004.839613

0018-9219/$20.00©2005IEEE

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anotherstandardthatprovidesamethodtoencapsulateJPEGimageswithrelevantmetadata.

Besidestheneedforhandlingmetadata,theneedtodeliververyhighresolutionimagesovertheInternetalsomotivatedthedevelopmentoftheFlashPixfileformat[4],[5]inthemid-1990s.FlashPixisaJPEG-basedmultiresolutiontiledimagefileformatthatallowsimagestobestoredatdifferentresolutionsforcommonapplicationsinofficesandhomes,suchaseditingorprinting.ThedevelopmentofFlashPix,whichwasprimarilydrivenasanindustryconsortiumstan-dardbyagroupofcompanies(Hewlett-Packard,Kodak,Mi-crosoft,andLivePicture),illustratesthedifferentapproachestakenindevelopmentstandardswithdifferentoutcomes.Weshallcomebacktothispointlaterwhenweaddressthesuc-cessfactorsinJPEG2000.B.MotivationforJPEG2000

DespitethesuccessofJPEGinthe1990s,agrowingnumberofnewapplicationssuchashigh-resolutionim-agery,digitallibraries,high-fidelitycolorimaging,multi-mediaandInternetapplications,wireless,medicalimaging,etc.,requireadditional,enhancedfunctionalitiesfromacompressionstandardthatJPEGcannotsatisfyduetosomeofitsinherentshortcomingsanddesignpointsthatwerebeyondthescopeofJPEGwhenitwasdevelopedinthepreviousdecade.TheshortcomingsofJPEGcanbeseeninanumberofareas[6]:distortionandartifacts,ineffectivehandlingofhigh-qualityimages,poorcompressionforloss-lessimages,lackofeffectivecolor-spacesupport,andlackofresolutionscaling.DistortionandartifactsintroducedbyJPEGincompressinglargeimages,especiallyathighcom-pressionrates,manifestinthewellknownblockingortilingartifactswhereeach8-by-8-pixelregiondevelopedwell-de-finededges,andringingartifactswheresmallwavesappearnexttosharpedgesintheimage.ThelimitationofJPEG’s64-kilopixelsamplesizeandthelimitationtoeither8-or12-bsampleshaveproventobetoorestrictiveformanynewimagingapplicationssuchasmedicalandhigh-resolutionimagery.Thelackofeffectivecolor-spacesupportinJPEGseverelyhindersitsadoptioninprepressandothergraphicsartsapplicationswhereconsistentcolorinformationfromimagecapturetoediting,display,orprintinghastobetightlymanaged.Finally,poorcompressionforlosslessimagesisalsoseenasalimitationbecausethelosslessmodeinJPEGisaccomplishedbyacompletelydifferentmethodthanthelossymode,andmovingfromonetotheotherrequirescompletelydecodingandrecodingtheimage.

WhiletheextendedJPEGsystems(suchasFlashPixandotherproprietaryfileformats)couldaddresssomeoftheseshortcomings,theirresultsweremixedandwidespreadadop-tionswerenotseen.Someofthesesolutionsweredrivenbyindustryconsortiathatareoperatingbasedonbusinessneedsasthefirstobjectiveandlackedthewidereachingdevelop-mentprocessofaformalstandardsapproachsuchastheISOstandardizationprocess.Othersolutionsthatweredrivenbyproprietarytechnologiesbysinglecompanyaretiedtopartic-ularproductsthatoftenresultedinlimitedmarketadoption.

LEE:JPEG2000:RETROSPECTIVEANDNEWDEVELOPMENTS

Inthemid-1990s,theJPEGcommitteehadanopportunitytostartanewworkitemtoaddresstheseissues,andtheresultistheJPEG2000familyofimagecodingstandards.

C.DevelopmentofJPEG2000

AtthetimeofthecompletionoftheJPEGseriesofimagecompressionstandard(ISO/IEC10918-1to4)intheearly1990s,theJPEGcommitteeaddedanewprojectthataimedforthelosslessandnear-losslesscompressionofcontin-uous-tonestillimagestoaddresstheinadequateperformanceofJPEG.TheresultofthatactivitywasthepublicationoftheISO/IEC14495ITU-TT.87standard[7],calledJPEG-LS,whichofferedanewimprovedmethodforcodingphoto-graphicimageswithoutloss,orwithwell-defineddistortion,whichisveryusefulinmedicalimagingandotherswheremanyeditsmaybeexpectedofanoriginalimage.OutofthemanysubmissionsforJPEG-LStechnology,therewasawavelet-basedtechnologysubmittedbyRicohcalledCREW[8]thatprovided,inasinglecompressedbit-stream,acon-tinuouslosslesstolossycompressionscheme.EventhoughCREWwasnotadoptedasthetechnologyforJPEG—LS,theinterestingsetoffeaturesthatCREWillustratedwasverymuchappreciatedbythecommittee.Subsequentlyanewworkitem[9]foranewcompressionsystem(latercalledJPEG2000)wasestablished,thuskick-startingtheJPEG2000project.

InMarch1997,acallforproposals[10]wasissuedseekingtoproduceastandardto“addressareaswherecurrentstandardsfailedtoproductthebestqualityorper-formance,”“providecapabilitiestomarketsthatcurrentlydonotusecompression,”and“provideanopensystemapproachtoimagingapplications.”Inadditiontothecallforcontributions,theJPEGcommitteereleasedasetof40testimagestobeprocessedandsubmittedforevaluation.InNovember1997,morethan20algorithmsweresubmittedandevaluatedbytheJPEGcommittee.Awavelet-basedcompressionmethodwasadoptedasthebackboneofthenewstandard.Acomprehensiverequirementsdocumentwasdevelopedthatdefinedalltheapplicationareasofthestandardalongwithasetofmandatoryandoptionalrequire-mentsforeachapplication.InMarch1998,thefirstversionofareferencetestenvironmentcalledtheJPEG2000Ver-ificationModel(VM)wasestablished.InDecember2000,afterthreeyearsofdedicatedworkbyover100JPEGex-pertsfromover18nationalbodies,conductinghundredsoftechnicalstudiesknownascoreexperiments,Part1oftheJPEG2000standardfinallyreachedInternationalStandardstatus[11].

ThepublicationofJPEG2000isatriumphofinnovationsandteamworkinformalstandardizationprocesswherethebestmindsinimagecompressiontechnologygatheredfromallovertheworldtoworkonaconsensusdrivenprocessandcomeupwiththespecificationofthemostcomprehensiveimagecodingsystemthatwilllastthroughtheendofthisdecade.

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Table1

PartsofJPEG2000StandardFamily

andtransmittedtogetherwithmaskinformationindicatinghowtocombinetheindividualsparts[22].

ThefirstsixpartsofJPEG2000formthemajorportionofthedevelopmentworkbytheJPEGcommitteeduringtheperiod1997–2001.In2002,thecommitteeintroducedfournewparts,Parts8–11,toaddressnewapplicationsareas.•Part8—JPSECisconcernedwithsecurityinJPEG2000applications.

•Part9—JPIPdefinesanadvancedsetofnetworkprotocolfordistributedapplicationinvolvingJPEG2000contents.•Part10—JP3Disconcernedwithcompressionofthree–dimensional(3-D)andfloatingpointdata.

•Part11—JPWLdealswithwirelessapplicationsusingJPEG2000.

ThesefournewpartsareunderdevelopmentbytheJPEGcommittee,withPart9—JPIPexpectedtoreachInternationalStandardstatusbytheendof2004.

Part12,whichwasformerlyanamendmentofPart3,isacommonactivitywiththeMPEGcommitteeworkingto-wardacommonfileformatwithMPEG-4.Part13isamostrecentlyestablishednewpart(March2004)withtheaimofstandardizationofanentry-levelJPEG2000encoder.

D.OrganizationofJPEG2000Standard

TheJPEG2000familyisorganizedinto13parts,asshowninTable1.Thefirst6partswereallpublishedasInternationalStandardsby2004.JPEG2000Part1,thecorecodingsystem,definesthecorecoderandisusedinotherpartsofthestandard.Itdefinesacorecodingsystemthatisaimedatminimalcomplexitywhilesatisfying80%oftheapplications.Part1specifiesasimplefileformat,JP2,whichmeetstheneedsofmost(butnotall)standardapplications.JP2providesabasiclevelofinteroperabilityforapplicationsthatwishtointerchangeJPEG2000data.ApplicationsthatchoosetoimplementJP2mustconformtoalloftherelevantprovisionsinthestandardinordertobeabletoclaimcompliance.

JPEG2000Part2,theextensions,extendsthecorePart1decoderbyintroducingarangeofadvancedfeaturesincludingextendedfileformatsupportandimprovedcom-pressionefficiencyusingmorecomplexalgorithms.Itisintendedtoservethoseapplicationswheremaximalinter-changeislessimportantthanmeetingspecificrequirements.JPEG2000Part3definesMotionJPEG2000(MJP2)andisprimarilybasedonthetechnologyinPart1withthead-ditionofafileformat.Itresultsinanencoderthatissig-nificantlylesscomplexthantheMPEGfamilyofstandards(becausemotionestimationisnotused)andprovidesfullrandomaccesstotheindividuallycodedframes.Itisin-tendedforapplicationssuchasdigitalsillcameraswithburstcapturemode,videoeditinginpostproductionenvironments,anddigitalcinemaarchiveanddistribution.

JPEG2000Part4definesconformancetestingtoensurehigh-qualityimplementationsofthestandard.

JPEG2000Part5definestworeferencesoftwareimple-mentationsforPart1.OneisaJavaimplementationbytheJJ2000group[12].TheotherisaCimplementationcalledJasPer[13].

JPEG2000Part6definesacompoundimagefileformatfordocumentscanningandrastergraphics.ThemainfeatureofPart6istheabilitytocombinedifferentimagelayersusingtransparencymasksandlayouts.Thishandlesthecompres-sionofdocumentswherescannedimagesarefirstsegmentedintohomogeneouspartsandthenindividuallycompressed

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III.OVERVIEWOFJPEG2000TECHNOLOGY

ThekeyincentivebehindthedevelopmentofJPEG2000wasnotjusttoprovidehighercompressionperformancecomparedtoJPEG,buttoprovideanewimagecodingsystemwitharichsetoffeatures,allsupportedwithinthesamecompressedbit-stream.WefirsthighlightthekeyfeaturesofJPEG2000andfollowwithasummarythekeytechnologiesinJPEG2000thatmadethesefeaturespos-sible.DetailsofvariousaspectsofJPEG2000technologycanbefoundin[14]–[21]and[25].A.JPEG2000Features

JPEG2000Part1addressestheshortcomingofJPEGbysupportingthefollowingsetoffeatures,allwithinasingle,tightlyintegratedcompressionarchitectureandcode-streamsyntax[15].

•Superiorcompressionperformance:Athighbitrates,whereartifactsbecomejustimperceptible,JPEG2000hasacompressionadvantageoverJPEGbyroughly20%onaverage.Atlowerbitrates,JPEG2000hasamuchmoresignificantadvantageovercertainmodesofJPEG.ThecompressiongainsoverJPEGareattributedtotheuseofDWTandmoresophisticatedentropyen-codingscheme.

•Multipleresolutionrepresentation:JPEG2000pro-videsseamlesscompressionofimagecomponentseachfrom1to16bitspercomponentsample.Withtiling,ithandlesarbitrarylargeimagesizeinonesinglecodestream.

•Progressivetransmissionbypixelandresolutionac-curacy(progressivedecodingandsignal-to-noiseratio

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Fig.1.JPEG2000buildingblocks.

•

•

•

•

•

(SNR)scalability):JPEG2000providesefficientcode-streamorganizationswhichareprogressivebypixelac-curacyorbyquality(SNR)andalsobyresolutionorsize.

Losslessandlossycompression:JPEG2000providesbothlosslessandlossycompressionfromasinglecom-pressionarchitecturewiththeuseofareversible(in-teger)wavelettransform.

Randomcodestreamaccessandprocessing(regionofinterest):JPEG2000codestreamsofferseveralmech-anismstosupportspatialrandomaccessorregionofinterestaccessatcarryingdegreesofgranularity.

Errorresilience(robusttobiterrors):JPEG2000isrobusttobiterrorsintroducedbynoisycommunica-tionchannelssuchaswireless.Thisisaccomplishedbytheinclusionofresynchronizationmarkers,thecodingofdatainrelativelysmallindependentblocks,andtheprovisionofmechanismstodetectandconcealerrorswithineachblock.

Sequentialbuildupcapability:JPEG2000allowsforencodingofanimagefromtoptobottominasequentialfashionwithouttheneedtobufferanentireimage.Flexiblefileformat:theJP2andJPXfileformatsallowforhandlingofcolor-spaceinformation,metadata,andforinteractivityinnetworkedapplicationsasdevelopedintheJPEGPart9—JPIPprotocol.

B.JPEG2000Technology

Fig.1illustratesthebasicbuildingblocksofJPEG2000:apreprocessingstepwhichtypicallyconsistsoftiling,dclevelshiftingandmulticomponenttransform(usedforRGBcolorinput),thenaDWT,followedbyaquantizer(forlossycompressiononly),thenanentropycoder,and,finally,abitstreamorganizationsteptopreparethefinalcodestreamofthecompressedimage.

1)Preprocessing:Tiling,DCLevelShifting,andMulti-componentTransform:Theimagesamplesaremappedasregularlyspacedpointsonahigh-resolutionreferencegrid.Thereferencegridisdividedupintoregularrectangular,nonoverlappingtilesofequalsize(exceptforthosetilesatimageborders).Thetilesizeisarbitraryandcanbeaslargeastheoriginalimageitself.Eachtileiscompressedinde-pendentlyusingitsownsetofspecifiedcompressionparam-eters.Unsignedimagesamplesaredclevelshiftedsothattheirrangeiscenteredonzero.Signedsamplesarenotlevelshifted.Themulticomponenttransformisalineartransfor-mationthatmapsRGBtoYCbCrcolorspaces.

2)DWT:TheDWTisappliedindependentlytotheimagecomponentsanddecorrelatestheimageintodifferentscalesizes,preservingmuchofitsspatialcorrelation.Aone-di-mensional(1-D)DWTconsistsofalow(L)andhigh(H)pass

LEE:JPEG2000:RETROSPECTIVEANDNEWDEVELOPMENTS

filtersplittingalineofpixelsintotwolinesofhalfthesize.Applicationofthefilterstotwo-dimensional(2-D)imagesinhorizontalandverticaldirectionsproducesfoursubbands(LL,LH,HL,andHH).TheLLsubbandisalowerreso-lutionrepresentationoftheoriginalimage,andthemissingdetailsarefilteredintotheremainingsubbands.Thesub-bandscontainthehorizontal(LH),vertical(HL),anddiag-onal(HH)edgesonthescalesizedefinedbythewavelet.Eachofthesesubbandscanbedecomposedfurtherbysub-sequentwavelettransforms.JPEG2000corecodingsystemspecifiesachoiceoftwowaveletfilters:theDaubechies9/7ortheintegerDaubechies5/3.The9/7filter(givenasfloatingpointnumbers)isprimarilyusedforhighvisualqualitycom-pression.Theshorterinteger5/3filtercanbeimplementedinintegerarithmeticandtheassociatedDWTisreversible,en-ablingthelosslesscompression.

3)CodeblockandPrecinctPartitioning:Eachtile-com-ponent-resolutionlevelispartitionedintocodeblocksandprecincts,inasimilarmannertothepartitioningoftheorig-inalimageintotiles.Thecodeblockistheunitwithinwhichbit-planecodingisdone.Precinctsaremadeupfromcode-blocksandareahigherlevelpartitioningusedforconstruc-tionofthedatapacketsthatmakeupthefinalcodestream.4)Quantization:Beforebit-planecoding,thetransformcoefficientswithineachsubbandarequantized.JPEG2000coresystemadoptsasimplelineardeadzonequantizerwherethedeadzonehasexactlytwicethestepsizeoftheremainingquantizingstepssoastoobtainanoptimalembeddedstruc-turetoachieveSNRscalability.

5)EntropyCoding:Bit-PlaneCoding:Tocreateem-beddedbit-streamsforthecompressedimagedata,bit-planeencodingofthequantizedwaveletcoefficientsisused.AuniquefeatureofJPEG2000intheapproachtobit-planethatmakesitdifferentfromtheusualapproachofexploitingthecorrelationbetweensubbandistoencodeeachsubbandindependentlyofothersubbands.Moreover,ablockcodingparadigmisusedwhereeachsubbandispartitionedintosmallrectangularblocks,calledcodeblocks,andeachcode-blockisencodedindependently.Thisapproach,knownasembeddedblockcodingwithoptimizedtruncation(EBCOT)[20],offersmanyadvantages,includinglocalizedrandomaccessintotheimage,parallelization,improvedcroppingandrotationfunctionality,improvederrorresilience,effi-cientratecontrol,andmaximumflexibilityinarrangingprogressionorders.Bynotexploitingtheintersubbandredundancies,itmayseemthatcodingefficiencyisaffected.However,thisismorethancompensatedbythefinerscala-bilityresultsfrommultiple-passencodingofthecodeblockbit-planes.Byusinganefficientratecontrolstrategythatin-dependentlyoptimizesthecontributionofeachcodeblocktothefinalbitstream,theJPEG2000Part1encoderachieves

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acompressionefficiencythatissuperiortootherexistingapproaches[21].

EncodinginEBCOTisdoneoncodeblocks(typicallyofsize64by64)usinganarithmeticcoder(theMQcoder),encodingeachbit-planebybit-plane,progressingfromthemostsignificanttotheleastsignificantbit.Encodingdatainabit-planeusescontextsadaptedtoedges,vicinitiesofedgesandtherest.

6)Precincts,Layers,andPackets:InJPEG2000,eachsubbandisdividedinrectangularblocks.Threespatiallycon-sistentrectangles(onefromeachsubbandateachresolu-tionlevel)formaprecinct.Eachprecinctisfurtherdividedintononoverlappingrectangles,thecodeblocks,whichformtheinputtotheentropycoder.Theindividualbit-planesofquantizedcoefficientsinacodeblockarecodedwithinthreecodingpasses.Eachofthesecodingpassescollectscontex-tualinformationaboutthebit-planedata.Anarithmeticcoder(theMQcoder)usesthecontextualinformationanditsin-ternalstatetodecodeacompressedbitstream.Differentter-minationmechanismsallowdifferentlevelsofindependentextractionofthiscodingpassdata.

Thecodeddataofeachcodeblockisdistributedacrossoneormorelayersinthecodestream.Eachlayerconsistsofanumberofconsecutivebiplanecodingpassesfromeachcodeblockinthetilecomponent,includingallsubbandsofallcomponentsforthattile.Thenumberofcodingpassesinthelayermayvaryfromcodeblocktocodeblockandmaybeaslittleaszeroforoneorallcodeblocks.Eachlayersuc-cessivelyandmonotonicallyimprovestheimagequality,sothatthedecoderisabletodecodethecodeblockcontributionscontainedineachlayerinsequence.

Afterencodingthedataofallcodeblocks,theEBCOThasautomaticallymeasuredtherateofeachindividualblock,i.e.,thelengthoftheencodeddatageneratedbytheMQcoder,asafunctionoftheindexofthebit-plane.Similarly,thedis-tortionasafunctionofthesameindexisalsodetermined.Hence,EBCOTknowstheratedistortioncurveofeachcode-block,parameterizedbytheindexofthebit-planes.Itre-mainstooptimizetheencodingtoproducetheleastdistortionforagiventotalrate,i.e.,forthesumofallratesallocatedtoallcodeblocks.Thisisdonebyawaterfillingprinciple:pro-gressingbit-planebybit-plane,thedataofthecodeblocksareprogressivelyaddedbyorderofthesteepnessoftheratedistortioncurve.ThisisapragmaticimplementationofLa-grangianoptimization,producingaveryprecisetargetingofthesizeofacompressedimage.

7)BitStreamOrganization:JPEG2000offerssignif-icantflexibilityintheorganizationofthecompressedbitstreamtoenablesuchfeaturesasrandomaccess,regionofinterestcodingandscalability.Thedatarepresentingaspe-cifictile,layer,component,resolution,andprecinctappearsinthecodestreaminacontinuoussegmentcalledapacket.8)CodestreamSyntax:Asafinalstage,theencodeddataarepackagedupwithasignalingsyntaxthatmakesitsuit-ablefordecodingandforflexiblereuse.JPEG2000inheritsfromJPEGthebasicsyntacticallanguageofmarkersandmarkersegments.Thecodedbitstreamdataoccursinter-leavedbetweenthemarkersandmarkersegmentsatappro-36

priatepoints.Itisdividedupintopacketsbylayer,precinct,resolutionlevel,andtilecomponent.Apacketcontainsthecodingpassdatawithinonelayer,foroneprecinct,fromallsubbandswithinoneresolutionlevelofonetilecomponent.Contiguoussequencesofpacketsfromthesametileconsti-tutetileparts.

9)Scalability:InJPEG2000,fouraspectsofthecodedimagearetreatedindependently:(spatial)position,(quality)layer,(color)component,andresolutionlevel.Thesearede-notedP,L,C,andR,respectively,andcanbethoughtofascoordinatesusedtodescribescalabilityofthecodedimage.TheJPEG2000codestreamisasequenceofallthepackets,obtainedbytraversingthePLCRcoordinatesinsomepro-gressionorder.Forexample,ifallthepacketsofthefirstlayerappearatthebeginning,andallthepacketsofthesecondlayernext,andsoon,wehavetheequivalentofJPEG’spro-gressivemodeillustratedabove.InJPEG2000,thisiscalledlayerprogressiveorqualityprogressiveanddenotedLRCP,becauseasonetravelsalongthe(1-D)codestream,theLco-ordinatevariesmostslowly,thenR,thenC,andthenP.10)KeySuccessFactors:WesummarizethekeysuccessfactorslearnedfromJPEG2000technology.

TheimprovementincompressionperformanceofJPEG2000overJPEGisrelatedtotwobasicprinciples:useofDWTandtherate-distortionencodingofthecodeblocksafterapplyingDWT.

JPEG2000usesfullyembeddedencodingtogetherwithasetofdifferentprogressionordersothatthecodestreamcanbetruncatedatanyposition,anditisstillpossibletode-codeanimagefromtheremainingbits.Dependingontheprogressionorder,thetruncatedstreamwillreconstructanimageofreducedquality,inthesenseofbitaccuracy,oranimageoflowerresolution.Modesforprogressivetransmis-sionbypixelaccuracyandbyresolutionallowsforanadap-tationtospecialenvironmentsandusage,suchastheInternetandimagearchivalapplications.

TheJP2fileformatssupportsomerestrictedcolorman-agementbyuseofenumerated(sRGB,YCrCb,grayscale)orrestrictedInternationalColorConsortium(ICC)colorprofiles.Moreover,JP2providesgenericsupportforbinaryandXMLmetadata.Specialpurposemetadata,suchasIPTCmetadata,canbeincludedveryeasilybyuseofpredefinedUUIDnumber.

TheimplicationofJPEG2000corecodingschemetoothervisualcompressionschemessuchasvideocodingisfar-reaching.

AlreadyJPEG2000Part3—MotionJPEG2000hasdemonstratedanumberofadvantagesoverDCT-basedcodingschemesinapplicationssuchasdigitalcinema[23].Anotherexampleisinthetransmissionofvideooverlowbitrateerror-pronewirelesschannels;ithasbeendemonstratedthatMJP2outperformsDCT-basedapproach[24].IV.JPEG2000NEWPARTS

In2002,theJPEGcommitteebeganinvestigationoffourapplicationareasthatareconsideredimportantapplicationsforJPEG2000,andformallyestablishedfournewpartsof

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Fig.2.JPIPprotocoloverview.

JPEG2000toaddresstheseapplications:JPIP,JPSEC,JP3D,andJPWL,respectively.Thesenewpartsaredesignedtoad-dressstandardizationneedsofspecificapplicationareastowhichtherichsetoftechnologyfromJPEG2000apply.Inthissection,wewillgivebriefintroductiontothedevelop-mentsofthesenewparts.

A.JPIP-JPEG2000Part9:InteractivityTools,ApplicationProgrammingInterfaces,andProtocols

JPIPisconcernedwiththespecificationofanewprotocolforinteractingwithJPEG2000contentsindistributedappli-cationsintheInternetenvironment.Thegoalistospecifyanetworkprotocol(syntaxesandmethods)thatenablesthein-teractiveandprogressivetransmissionofJPEG2000codeddataandfilesfromaservertoaclient[28],[29].

JPEG2000offersmanydesirablefeaturesinsupportofin-teractiveaccessoflargeimages(resolutionscalability,pro-gressiverefinement,spatialrandomaccess).However,JPEG2000Part1describesonlyacodestreamsyntax,suitableforstoringthecompresseddatainafile.Onewaytointeractre-motelywiththeimagecontentisforanintelligentbrowsingclienttoaccessappropriatebyterangesfromthefile.SuchanapproachallowsexistingHTTPserverstobeusedforbyterangeaccesses[26].However,abyterangeapproachrequirestheinclusionofindextablethatanintelligentclientcanreadtodeterminethelocations(byteranges)oftherelevantcom-presseddataandheaderinformation.TheJPIPprotocolal-lowsaclienttorequestonlytheportionsofanimage(byregion,quality,orresolutionlevel)thatareapplicabletotheclient’sneed.Theprotocolalsoallowstheclienttoaccessmetadataorothercontentfromthefile.Althoughthetermsclientandserveraretypicallyusedtorefertotheimagere-ceivinganddeliveringapplications,JPIPcanbeusedwithinbothhierarchicalandpeer-to-peernetworks,forbidirectionimagedatadelivery,ontopofnetworktransportprotocolssuchasTCP/IP,UDP,andHTTP.

WenotethatbeforetheadventofJPEG2000,asimilarprotocolcalledInternetImagingProtocol[27]wasdevel-opedinconjunctionwiththeFlashPixfileformat[4]toenableinteractiveretrievalofimagesinanetworkedenvi-ronment.ThedevelopmentofInternetImagingProtocolwascarriedoutbyanindustryconsortium,anddevelopmentef-fortwasnotcontinuedafteraninitialwaveofproductizationofthetechnology.

IntheJPIPstandard,thesemanticsandstructuredinter-actionsbetweenclientandserversareformallydefinedto

LEE:JPEG2000:RETROSPECTIVEANDNEWDEVELOPMENTS

Fig.3.JPIPprotocolstack.

accomplishedthefollowingtasksinanydistributedimagingapplicationthatapplies:theexchangeofcapabilities,thene-gotiationofcapabilitiestouseinasession,andtherequestandtransferfromJPEG2000familyfilesandcodestreamsofselectivedatasegmentsorpartsofanimageoritsrelatedmetadata.Further,theJPIPprovidesthecapabilityforfall-back,suchthattheprotocolcandeliversimilarresultsusingdifferinglevelsofawarenessofJPEG2000filesandcode-streamstructuresattheclientandserver.

IntheJPIPprotocol(Fig.2),theclientusesaview-windowrequesttodefinetheresolution,size,location,components,layers,andotherparametersfortheimageandimageryrelateddatathatisrequestedbytheclient.Theserverre-sponsedeliversimageryandrelateddatawithprecinct-basedstreams,tile-basedstreams,orwholeimages.Theprotocolallowsforthenegotiationoftheclientandservercapabil-itiesandlimitations.Theclientmayrequestinformationaboutanimageasdefinedinindextablesfromtheserver,whichenablestheclienttorefineitsview-windowrequesttoimage-specificparameters(e.g.,byterangerequests).Theserver’scachemodelisbasedonthecapabilitiesdefinedbytheclientandthestatefulnessofthesession.

JPIPprotocolisdesignedtobetransportneutral.Apri-maryobjectiveisthatJPIPcommunicationcanberealizedusingHTTP/1.1astheunderlyingtransportwithoutinter-feringwithexistingHTTPinfrastructure.Itcanbeusedoverseveraldifferenttransports,asshowninFig.3.

1)JPIPStatus:JPEG2000Part9—JPIPreachedtheFinalDraftInternationalStandard(FDIS)stageofstandard-izationinOctober2004andisexpectedtobepublishedasaninternationalstandardbytheendof2004.B.JPSEC-JPEG2000Part8:SecureJPEG2000JPSECisconcernedwithspecifyingtoolsandsolutionstoallowapplicationstogenerate,consume,andexchangesecureJPEG2000bitstreams[30].Securityissuesthataretargetedbythisstandardincludebutnotlimitedto

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Fig.4.OverviewofJPSECframework.

authentication,dataintegrity,protectionofcontents(IPR)andprotectionoftechnologies(IP),privacy,conditionalaccess,confidentiality,andtransactiontracing.TheJPSECframeworkisillustratedinFig.4.

CentraltotheJPSECframeworkistheJPEGbitstreamwhichrepresentsasecureJPEG2000image.TheJPSECbitstreamscanbecreatedfromanoriginalimage,fromJPEG2000encodeddata,orfromotherJPSECbitstream.TotheJPEGbitstreamareassociatedanumberofJPSECsecurityservices:confidentialityoftheimagedata,integrityoftheimagedata,authenticationoftheimagedataorigin,etc.Thesignalingsyntaxspecifieswhatsecurityservicesareassoci-atedwiththeimagedata,whichJPSECtoolsarerequiredtorenderthecorrespondingservices,andwhichpartsoftheimagedataareprotected.AJPSEC-compliantapplicationisonethatisabletoconsumeJPSECbitstreams.IntheJPSECframework,alltoolsareregisteredbytheJPSECRegistrationAuthority.ThismeansthatallJPSECtoolsareassociatedwithauniqueidentificationnumberprovidedbythecommonregistry.AnumberofJPSECtoolsandtooldescriptionshavebeenpreregistered.Withthisprocess,provisionismadeforfuturetoolstobeidentified.1)JPSECFunctionality:

•Confidentialityviaencryptionandselectiveencryp-tion:AsecureJPEG2000filewillsupportconfiden-tialitymechanismstoallowforencryptionoftheimagecontent(codestream).Sometoolswillallowselectiveencryption,wherebypartsofthecodestreamcanbeencryptedforseveralusers.

•Integrityverification:AsecureJPEG2000filecansup-portmeansofdetectingmanipulationstotheimageand/ormetadataandtherebyverifyingtheirintegrity.•Sourceauthentication:AsecureJPEG2000filecansupportverificationoftheidentityofauser/partywhichgeneratedtheJPSECfile.

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•RegisteredContentidentification:AsecureJPEG2000filecanberegisteredataRegistrationAuthority.Itcansupportamethodofmatchingtheclaimedimagedata/contenttotheregisteredimagedata/content.

•Conditionalaccessmechanism:AsecureJPEG2000bitstreamallowsforconditionalaccesstoportionsoftheimagecontent.Thiscouldallow,forinstance,viewingalow-resolution(preview)ofanimagewithoutbeingabletovisualizeahigherresolution.•Securescalablestreamingandsecuretranscoding:AsecureJPEG2000file,bitstream,orsequenceofpacketswillallowaseparatenodetoperformstreamingandtranscodingwithoutrequiringdecryp-tionorunprotectedcontent.

2)JPSECStatus:JPSECiscurrentlyunderdevelop-ment.ItisexpectedthatitwillreachFinalCommitteeDraft(FCD)statusbytheendof2004andwillbepublishedasanInternationalStandardby2005.

C.JP3D-JPEG2000Part10:3-DandFloatingPointDataJP3DisaworkitemsubdivisionofJPEG2000thatwillprovideextensionsofJPEG2000forlogicallyrectangular3-Ddatasetswithnotimecomponent.JP3DisenvisionedasapureextensionofJPEG2000Parts1and2.

ThepotentialmarketsforthisworkincludeapplicationsthatareinadequatelyservedbythecapabilitiesprovidedinJPEG-2000Part2.Volumetricimagery,inparticular,ishand-icappedbythefactthatPart2doesnottreat3-Ddatasourcesisotropically.All3-DapplicationsarepotentiallyaffectedbythefactthatPart2failstoenableanumberofsourcecodingfeaturesinthecross-componentdirection.TheworkplanalsoenvisionsstudyingapotentialspecificationforcodingtimeseriesofJP3Dimages(e.g.,volumetrictimeseries).Suchsourcesarecurrentlyofinterestinscientificvisualiza-tionandmedicalimagingapplications.Anysuchspecifica-tionwouldbetreatedasanextensionofMotionJPEG-2000

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Fig.5.JPWLsystemdescription.

forsignalingsequencesofJP3Dframesandwouldbepre-sentedasanamendmentorextensionofPart3.

1)JP3DStatus:JP3Disunderdevelopmentandisex-pectedtoentertheFCDstagebytheendof2004.D.JPWL-JPEG2000Part11:Wireless

JPWLdefinesasetoftoolsandmethodstoachievetheeffi-cienttransmissionofJPEG2000imageryoveranerror-pronewirelessnetwork.Wirelessnetworksarecharacterizedbythefrequentoccurrenceoftransmissionerrorsalongwithalowbandwidth,henceforthputtingstrongconstraintsonthetransmissionofdigitalimages.SinceJPEG2000provideshighcompressionefficiency,itisagoodcandidateforwire-lessmultimediaapplications.Moreover,duetoitshighscal-ability,JPEG2000enablesawiderangeofqualityofservice(QoS)strategiesfornetworkoperators.However,tobesuit-ableforwirelessmultimediaapplications,JPEG2000hastoberobusttotransmissionerrors.

JPEG2000Part1defineserrorresiliencetoolstoimproveperformancesovernoisychannels.However,thesetoolsonlydetectwhereerrorsoccur,concealtheerroneousdata,andresynchronizethedecoder.Morespecifically,theydonotcorrecttransmissionerrors.Furthermore,thesetoolsdonotapplytotheimageheaderwhichisthemostimportantpartofthecodestream.Forthesereasons,theyarenotsufficientinthecontextofwirelesstransmissions.

Forthepurposeofefficienttransmissionoverwirelessnetworks,thisspecificationdefinesothermechanismsforerrorprotectionandcorrection.ThesemechanismsextendtheelementsinthecorecodingsystemdescribedinJPEG2000Part1.TheseextensionsarebackwardcompatibleinthesensethatdecoderswhichimplementPart1areabletodecodethepartofthedatathatconformstoPart1whileskippingtheextensionsdefinedinthisspecification.ThisspecificationalsodefinesextensionstothefamilyofJPEG2000fileformats.

LEE:JPEG2000:RETROSPECTIVEANDNEWDEVELOPMENTS

Thisspecificationisnotlinkedtoaspecificnetworkortransportprotocol,butprovidesagenericsolutionforthero-busttransmissionofJPEG2000imageryovererror-pronenetworks.ThemainfunctionalityoftheJPWLsystemistoprotectthecodestreamagainsttransmissionerrors.Twootherfunctionalitiesareadescriptionofthedegreeofsensitivityofdifferentpartsofthecodestreamtotransmissionerrors,andadescriptionofthelocationsofresidualerrorsinthecode-stream.TheJPWLsystemisillustratedinFig.5.

1)JPWLStatus:ThestandardisunderdevelopmentanditisexpectedtoenterFCDstatusbytheendof2005.V.SUCCESSFACTORSOFJPEG2000

Basedontheexperienceofmanagingacomplexstandard-izationprojectsuchasJPEG2000,theauthorwouldliketoofferthefollowingobservationsasthesuccessfactorslearnedinthedevelopmentofJPEG2000.A.ImportanceofStandardizationProcess

•Formalstandardsversusindustrystandard—Theforemostobjectiveforsettingstandardsintechnologyistoensurecomplianceininteroperabilityofthetechnologyamongdifferentimplementationssothatapplications/userswillbenefitfromuniformityinfunc-tionalitiesandfeatureswhenthetechnologyisapplied.Instandardizationprocessthereareessentiallytwoap-proaches:formalstandardsmanagedbyorganizationssuchasISOandindustrystandardsmanagedbyin-dustryconsortium.Bothapproacheshavetheirrelativeadvantages—theformalstandardapproachtendstobemoreencompassingandinclusive,whiletheindustryconsortium-basedstandardapproachtendstobemoreselective,narrowlyfocused.Eitherapproachwillneedwell-establishedproceduresandrulestomanagethestandardsdevelopmentprocess.Moreimportantly,theproductlifecyclemanagementofthestandardonceitispublishediskeytothesuccessofthelongevityof

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thestandard.Intheformalstandardapproach,organi-zationslikeISOadoptaconsensus-basedapproachtothedecision-makingprocesswhichrequiresacceptingopinionsandcontributionsfromminorityrepresenta-tives.Thisapproachwillhelptolessenthedangerofanticompetitivebehaviorinanysettingsthatinvolvemajorforcesintheindustry.InthecaseofJPEG2000,theISOstandardizationprocesshasproventobetherightchanneltodevelopsuchasstandard.Incontrast,theFlashPixandInternetImagingProtocol—whichweretechnologicallysound,buthadgonetherouteofindustrystandarddevelopment—didnotmeettheexpectationthatwassetbytheconsortium.

•Whentodevelopastandard—Timing,maturityofthetechnology,andmarketrequirementsareallkeydeci-sionfactorsonwhentodevelopastandard.Ifthetech-nologyistoofaraheadofitsadoptioncurveorkeytechnicalelementsarenotready,thenpushingforstan-dardizationtooearlymaycreatenonrealisticrequire-mentsandimmaturetechnicalsolutionsthatwillleadtounsuccessfulstandards.Ontheotherhand,ifthetechnologyisready,butthemarketwindowhasgonebywheresubstandardtechnologyhastakenrootandbecomepervasivesuchthattheswitchingcostmaybe-cometoohigh,thenthechanceforadoptingthetech-nologymaybelost.InthecaseofJPEG,thetimingforstandardizationofMotionJPEGwasabitlateand,hence,differentversionsofMotionJPEGcametothemarketwithoutastandardizedversion.InthecaseofJPEG2000,thecommitteerecognizedtheneedforaMotionJPEG2000standardandmadetherightdeci-siontodeveloptheJPEG2000Part3asanewstandard.•Valueofstandardsandstandardsparticipa-tion—WithoutthesupportofalargenumberfororganizationsfortheJPEG2000program,itwouldneverhavedevelopedintosuchasuccessintermsofaverypowerfulimagecodingsystemwithsuperiorperformancemeetingallthegoalssetintherequire-mentsobjectives.Thesupportisnotonlymeasuredinfinancialtermsintermsoftravelandmeetingcostsfortheparticipants,butintermsofinnovationscontributedbymembersofthedifferentorganizations,whicharethetruevalueofthestandard.AlsothecredibilitythattheorganizationsaddtotheworkingcommitteelendstothebrandingandtrustoftheJPEG2000standard.Fromtheparticipant’spointofview,workinginastandardsbodyopensone’sprofessionalandpersonalrelationshipswithone’speers,andcreateanonstoplearningopportunityofone’sprofessionalgrowth.B.SuccessFactors

•Understandmarketrequirements—Goodunder-standingofmarketrequirementsaretheforemostdeterminingfactorofwhetherastandardwillsucceedornot.InthecaseofJPEG2000,thecommitteehavepaidmuchattentiontowhattherequirementsareforeachoftheapplicationsandfromtherequirements

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developedthefeaturesthatareneededandthecorre-spondingtechnicalsolutionstoachievethefeatures.•Understandhowtechnologyscales—Themainper-formancefactorsonJPEG2000camefromtheadop-tionofDWTandtheembeddedbitstreamofferedbytheparticularchoicesinthewaytheentropycoderwasdesignedsoastoenableanoverallscalingofbothcom-pressionperformanceandsystemsperformance(paral-lelization,ratecontrol,etc.).ThedesignoftheJP2/JPXfileformat,theextensibilitytohandlemetadata,andotherapplicationssuchascompounddocument,wire-less,security,interactivity,andnetworkprotocolallcontributedtoaveryrobustimagingplatformwhereapplicationscanscalealongwithdemandsfromappli-cationsizeandspeed.Othersuccessfactors:

•Timetomarket—keepprojectonschedule.

•Keepmembersofcommitteeinterested.Buildanactivedevelopers/research/userscommunity.

•Manageconsensusversussimplevotingtoreachanoptimizeddecision.

•ImportanceofIPRissue:Feefreestandardiskeytopervasiveadoption.

•Importanceofreferencesoftwareand,compliancetesting.

•ImportanceofPR:seminars,tutorials,papers,andbooks.VI.CONCLUSION

JPEG2000isatriumphofinnovations,teamwork,andgoodexecutionfromastandardizationpointofview.JPEG2000hasprovidedarobust,highlyscalableimagecodingplatformanddeliverssuperiorcompressionperformanceandadvancedfeaturesinscalability,flexibility,andsystemsfunc-tionalitiesthatwillbringbenefitstomanyimagingapplica-tionsforyearstocome.JPEG2000referencesoftwareandcompliancetestsarereadilyavailable.1TheJPEGcommitteeiscontinuingitseffortstoworkofthenewpartsinJPIP,JPSEC,JP3D,andJPWLandlookforwardtoaddmorenewapplicationsin2004intheareasofadvancedimagecoding(AIC),stillimagesearch(JPSearch,newprojectISO24800),andimage-basedauthentication(IBA).ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Over100expertsfrom17nationalbodies,over60or-ganizationscontributedtotheworkofJPEG2000:Adobe,Aerospace,AlgoVision,AnalogDevices,Apple,Aware,BoozAllen,Canon,Elysium,Ericsson,Fraunhofer,Fuji-film,HP,IBM,ImagePower,Kodak,LosAlamos,LuraTech,Microsoft,Mitre,Mitsubishi,Motorola,NEC,NetImage,Nokia,Oki,Philips,PictureElement,Ricoh,SACD,SAIC,Sharp,Sony,TI,Xilinx,Yahoo!,Xerox,Zoran;Universities:Univ.ofNewSouthWales,Univ.ofArizona,EPFL,UBC,RPI,TokyoInstit.Polytechnics;NationalBodies:Australia,Belgian,China,Finland,France,Germany,Israel,India,

1[Online]

http://www.jpeg.org/software

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Italy,Japan,Korea,Portugal,Singapore,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,theU.K.,andtheUnitedStates.REFERENCES

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DanielT.Lee(Member,IEEE)receivedtheB.S.degreefromCornellUniversity,Ithaca,NY,in1973andtheM.S.andPh.D.degreesfromStanfordUniversity,Stanford,CA,in1975and1980,respectively.

HeheldanumberofmanagementpositionsatHewlett-PackardCompany,includingManagerofImagingTechnologyatHPLabsandDirectorofR&DofHPInternetImagingOperation,anddevelopedtheHPOpenPixImagingproductsaswellasHPCartograPhotohostingservices.

HeiscurrentlywithYahoo!astheChiefTechnologyOfficerofYahoo!NorthAsia.HeisinchargeofallengineeringandtechnicaloperationsforYahoo!intheregion.Inthatcapacity,heisresponsiblefordevelopingmediaandcommunications,search,auctionsandbroadbandaccessserviceintheregion.HealsomanagesthedeploymentofYahoo!datacentersintheregionincludingChina,HongKong,Taiwan,Singapore,andIndia.Dr.LeeiscurrentlytheConveneroftheISO/IECJTC1SC29/WG1—JPEGStandardsCommittee.Since1996,hehasledagroupofover100expertsfromover18countriesthatdevelopedtheISOJPEG2000familyofimagingstandard.

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